C&C’s Conceptual Indian History [A Snapshot]

For Quick Revision

3/1/2011

R.K.Jugnoo

Ancient History of India

· India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization.

· It begins with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India.

· The history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that surround India.

· Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the progress that this part of the world had made.

· By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization

· The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as Harappan Civilization.

· It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is Pakistan and Western India.

· The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.

· Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.

· The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region.

· The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were also the centers for trade.

· The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after.

· They had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system.

· The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys.

· The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their staple food.

· They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well.

· Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments.

· By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end.

· Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the invasion by the Aryans, the recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.

Vedic civilization

The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history· of ancient India associated with the coming of Aryans.

· It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people.

· The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab.

· Vedic is synonymous with Aryans and Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.

· The largely accepted view is that a section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BC and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed.

· The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages.

· Gradually, the Aryans intermingled with the local people and a historic synthesis was worked out between the Aryan tribes and the original inhabitants.

· This synthesis broadly came to be known as Hinduism. The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

Middle kingdoms

The Buddhist Era

· During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7^th and early 6^th centuries BC.

· Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali.

· Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti.

· These states were ruled by vigorous personalities who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of neighbouring states.

· However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the monarchs were expanding.

· Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480.

· The place of his birth was a grove known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges within Nepal.

· Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern Asia.

Alexander's Invasion

· In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he advanced towards Taxila.

· He then challenged king Porus , ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab.

· The Indians were defeated in the fierce battle, even though they fought with elephants, which the Macedonians had never before seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory.

· During this trip to rivers Hydaspes and Indus in the south, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated with them on philosophical issues.

· He became legendary for centuries in India for being both, a wise philosopher and a fearless conqueror.

· One of the villages in which the army halted belonged to the Mallis, who were said to be one of the most warlike of the Indian tribes.

· Alexander was wounded several times in this attack, most seriously when an arrow pierced his breastplate and his ribcage.

· The Macedonian officers rescued him in a narrow escape from the village.

· Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 BC, and turned westward for home.

The Mauryan Empire

· The period of the Mauryan Empire (322 BC-185 BC) marked a new epoch in the history of India.

· It is said to be a period when chronology became definite.

· It was a period when politics, art, trade and commerce elevated India to a glorious height.

· It was a period of unification of the territories which lay as fragmented kingdoms.

· Moreover, Indian contact with the outside world was established effectively during this period.

· The confusion following the death of Alexander gave Chandragupta Maurya an opportunity to liberate the countries from the yoke of the Greeks, and thus occupy the provinces of Punjab and Sindh.

· He later overthrew the power of Nandas at Magadha with the aid of Kautilya, and founded a glorious Mauryan empire in 322 BC. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 301 BC, thus, earned the title of liberator and the first emperor of Bharata.

· At a higher age, Chandragupta got interested in religion and left his throne to his son Bindusar in 301 BC.

· Bindusar conquered the Highland of Deccan during his reign of 28 years and gave his throne to his son Ashoka in 273 BC.

· Ashoka emerged not only as the most famous king of the Maurya dynasty, but is also regarded as one of the greatest king of India and the world.

· His empire covered the whole territory from Hindu Kush to Bengal and extended over Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south.

· The valleys of Nepal and Kashmir were also included in his empire.

· The most important event of Ashoka's reign was the conquest of Kalinga (modern Orissa) which proved to be the turning point of his life.

· The Kalinga war witnessed terrible manslaughter and destruction.

· The sufferings and atrocities of the battlefield lacerated the heart of Ashoka.

· He made a resolve not to wage war any more.

· He realised the wickedness of worldly conquest and the beauty of moral and spiritual triumph.

· He was drawn to the teachings of Buddha and devoted his life to the conquest of men's heart by the law of duty or piety.

· He evolved a policy of Dharma Vijaya, 'Conquest by Piety'.

End of the Mauryan Empire

· Ashoka was succeeded by weak rulers, which encouraged the provinces to proclaim their independence.

· The arduous task of administering such a vast empire could not be executed by the weak rulers.

· The mutual quarrel among the successors also contributed to the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

· In the beginning of the 1^st century A.D., the Kushanas established their authority over the north-west frontier of India.

· The most famous among the Kushana kings was Kanishka (125 A.D.-162 A.D.), who was the third in the Kushana dynasty.

· The Kushana rule continued till the middle of 3rd century A.D. The most notable achievement of their rule was the development of Gandhara School of Art and further spread of Buddhism into distant regions of Asia.

Gupta Dynasty

· After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty.

· The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history.

· The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I.

· He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis.

· This marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I.

· He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis.

· From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis.

· He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh).

· His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

· Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330 A.D., who reigned for about fifty years.

· He was a great military genius and is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region.

· Samudragupta's successor Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive territories of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar.

· This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity of the Guptas.

· The Guptas in this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west.

· It was most probably during his reign that Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other scientist and scholars flourished.

Decline of Gupta Dynasty

· The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5^th and the 6^th century A.D. gave rise to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns.

· Toramara was the leader of the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire.

· His son, Mihirakula was a cruel barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known.

· Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India.

Harshavardhana

· With the commencement of the 7^th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana.

· By 612 Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India.

· In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II.

· But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated.

· Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations.

· He maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and developed their knowledge about each other.

· The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during his reign, has given a vivid description of the social, economic and religious conditions, under the rule of Harsha spoke highly of the king.

· Harsha's death, once again, left India without any central paramount power.

The Chalukyas of Badami

· The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6^th and 8^th century A.D. Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. and having made many splendid victories, established a mighty empire.

· His sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa further extended the kingdom by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including the Mauryans of the Konkans.

· Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.

· He ruled for almost 34 years.

· In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan.

· His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana.

· However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D. His son Vikramaditya, who was also as great a ruler as his father, succeeded him.

· He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies.

· He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent.

· Even his great grandson, Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior.

· In 753 A.D., Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra called Rashtrakutas.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

· In the last quarter of the 6^th century A.D. the Pallava king Sinhavishnu rose to power and conquered the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri.

· His son and successor Mahendravarman was a versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to the Chalukya king, Pulekesin II.

· But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas.

· The Pallava power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for his architectural achievements.

· He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his times.

· Dandin, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court. However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline and in course of time they were reduced to a mere local tribal power.

· Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and took over their kingdom towards the close of the 9^th century A.D.

· The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of several dynasties, which have left their legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history.

· With the end of the 9^thcentury A.D., the medieval history of India started with the rise of empires such as the Palas, the Senas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, and so on.

Medieval History of India

· For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire.

· The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9^th century was that of the Cholas.

The Palas

· Between 8^th and 10^th centuries A.D., a number of powerful empires dominated the eastern and northern parts of India.

· The Pala king Dharmpala, son of Gopala reigned from the late 8^thcentury A.D. to early 9^th century A.D. Nalanda University and Vikramashila University were founded by Dharmpala.

The Senas

· After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal.

· The founder of the dynasty was Samantasena.

· The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena.

· He conquered the whole of Bengal and was succeeded by his son Ballalasena.

· He reigned peacefully but kept his dominions intact.

· He was a great scholar and wrote four works including one on astronomy.

· The last ruler of this dynasty was Lakshamanasena under whose reign the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.

The Pratihara

· The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja.

· He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century.

· He built the city Bhojpal (Bhopal).

· Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.

· Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who devastated the city leading to the weakening of the Pratihara Empire.

· In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni.

· The empire broke into independent Rajput states.

The Rashtrakutas

· This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several reasons.

· They ruled the territory vaster than that of any other dynasty.

· They were great patrons of art and literature.

· The encouragement that several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is unique, and the religious tolerance exercised by them was exemplary.

The Chola Empire of the South

· It emerged in the middle of the 9^th century A.D., covered a large part of Indian peninsula, as well as parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands.

· The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja Chola I and his son and successor Rajendra Chola.

· Rajaraja carried forward the annexation policy of his father.

· He led armed expedition to distant lands of Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.

· The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were brave rulers who fought fiercely against the later Chalukya kings, but could not check the decline of Chola Empire.

· The later Chola kings were weak and incompetent rulers.

· The Chola Empire thus lingered on for another century and a half, and finally came to an end with the invasion of Malik Kafur in the early 14^thcentury A.D.

The Rise of Islam in South-Asia

· The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet Muhammad.

· The Umayyad caliph in Damascus sent an expedition to Baluchistan and Sindh in 711 led by Muhammad bin Qasim. He captured Sindh and Multan.

· Three hundred years after his death Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, the ferocious leader, led a series of raids against Rajput kingdoms and rich Hindu temples, and established a base in Punjab for future incursions.

· In 1024, the Sultan set out on his last famous expedition to the southern coast of Kathiawar along the Arabian Sea, where he sacked the city of Somnath and its renowned Hindu temple.

Muslim Invasion In India

· Muhammad Ghori invaded India in 1175 A.D. After the conquest of Multan and Punjab, he advanced towards Delhi.

· The brave Rajput chiefs of northern India headed by Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated him in the First Battle of Terrain in 1191 A.D. After about a year, Muhammad Ghori came again to avenge his defeat.

· A furious battle was fought again in Terrain in 1192 A.D. in which the Rajputs were defeated and Prithvi Raj Chauhan was captured and put to death.

· The Second Battle of Terrain, however, proved to be a decisive battle that laid the foundations of Muslim rule in northern India.

The Delhi Sultanate

· The period between 1206 A.D. and 1526 A.D. in India's history is known as the Delhi Sultanate period.

· During this period of over three hundred years, five dynasties ruled in Delhi.

· These were: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526).

The Slave Dynasty

· The concept of equality in Islam and Muslim traditions reached its climax in the history of South Asia when slaves were raised to the status of Sultan.

· The Slave Dynasty ruled the Sub-continent for about 84 years.

· It was the first Muslim dynasty that ruled India.

· Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, who became the ruler after the death of his master, founded the Slave Dynasty.

· He was a great builder who built the majestic 238 feet high stone tower known as Qutub Minar in Delhi.

· The next important king of the Slave dynasty was Shams-ud-din Iltutmush, who himself was a slave of Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

· Iltutmush ruled for around 26 years from 1211 to 1236 and was responsible for setting the Sultanate of Delhi on strong footings.

· Razia Begum, the capable daughter of Iltutmush, was the first and the only Muslim lady who ever adorned the throne of Delhi.

· She fought valiantly, but was defeated and killed.

· Finally, the youngest son of Iltutmush, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became Sultan in 1245.

· Though Mahmud ruled India for around 20 years, but throughout his tenure the main power remained in the hands of Balban, his Prime Minister.

· On death of Mahmud, Balban directly took over the throne and ruled Delhi.

· During his rule from 1266 to 1287, Balban consolidated the administrative set up of the empire and completed the work started by Iltutmush.

The Khilji Dynasty

· Following the death of Balban, the Sultanate became weak and there were number of revolts.

· This was the period when the nobles placed Jalal-ud-din Khilji on the throne.

· This marked the beginning of Khilji dynasty.

· The rule of this dynasty started in 1290 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-din Khilji hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalal-ud-din killed and proclaimed himself as the Sultan in 1296.

· Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Muslim ruler whose empire covered almost whole of India up to its extreme south.

· He fought many battles, conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa, and Deccan.

· During his reign of 20 years, Mongols invaded the country several times but were successfully repulsed.

· From these invasion Alla-ud-din Khilji learnt the lessons of keeping himself prepared, by fortifying and organizing his armed forces.

· Alla-ud-din died in 1316 A.D., and with his death, the Khilji dynasty came to an end.

The Tughlaq Dynasty

· Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

· He conquered Warrangal and put down a revolt in Bengal.

· Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the kingdom beyond India, into Central Asia.

· Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq rule, and were defeated this time too.

· Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq first shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan.

· However, it had to be shifted back within two years.

· He inherited a massive empire but lost many of its provinces, more particularly Deccan and Bengal.

· He died in 1351 A.D. and his cousin, Feroz Tughlaq succeeded him.

· Feroz Tughlaq did not contribute much to expand the territories of the empire, which he inherited.

· He devoted much of his energy to the betterment of the people.

· After his death in 1388, the Tughlaq dynasty came virtually to an end.

· Although the Tughlaqs continued to reign till 1412, the invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.

Timur's Invasion

· It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without much resistance.

Sayyid Dynasty

· Then came the Sayyid dynasty founded by Khizar Khan.

· The Sayyids ruled from about 1414 A.D. to 1450 A.D. Khizar Khan ruled for about 37 years.

· Last in Sayyid dynasty was Muhammad-bin-Farid.

· During his reign there was confusion and revolts. The empire came to an end in 1451 A.D. with his death.

Lodhi Dynasty

Buhlul Khan Lodhi (1451-1489 A.D.)

· He was the first king and the founder of the Lodhi dynasty.

· With a view to restoring the Delhi Sultanate its past glory, he conquered many territories including the powerful kingdom of Jaunpur.

· Buhlul Khan extended his territories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and Uttar Pradesh.

Sikander Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

· After Buhlul Khan's death, his second son Nizam Shah was proclaimed the king, under the title of Sultan Sikander Shah, in 1489.

· He made all efforts to strengthen his kingdom and extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar.

· He was a good administrator and a patron of arts and letters. He died in 1517 A.D.

Ibrahim Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

· After the death of Sikandar, his son Ibrahim ascended the throne.

· Ibrahim Lodhi did not prove to be an able ruler.

· He became more and more strict with the nobles.

· He used to insult them.

· Thus, to take revenge of their insults, Daulat Khan Lodhi, governor of Lahore and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babar, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India.

· Ibrahim Lodhi was killed at Panipat in 1526 A.D. by Babar's army.

· Thus came the final collapse of Delhi Sultanate and paved the establishment of Mughal Empire in India.

Vijayanagar Empire

· When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu princes, Harihar and Bukka founded an independent kingdom in the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336.

· They soon established their sway over the entire territory between the rivers Krishna in the north and Cauveri in the south.

· The rising powers of the Vijayanagar empire brought it into clash with many powers and they frequently fought wars with the Bahmani kingdom.

· The most famous king of the Vijaynagara Empire was Krishnadeva Raya.

· The Vijayanagar kingdom reached the pinnacle of its glory during his reign.

· He was successful in all the wars he waged. He defeated the king of Orissa and annexed Vijaywada and Rajmahendri.

· Krishnadeva Raya encouraged trade with the western countries.

· He had a cordial relationship with the Portuguese who had at that time established trade centres on the west coast of India.

· He was not only a great warrior, but was also a playwright and a great patron of learning.

· Telegu literature flourished under him.

· Painting, sculpture, dance and music were greatly encouraged by him and his successors.

· He endeared himself to the people by his personal charm, kindness, and an ideal administration.

· The decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom began with the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529.

· The kingdom came to an end in 1565, when Ramrai was defeated at Talikota by the joint efforts of Adilshahi, Nizamshahi, Qutubshahi and Baridshahi.

· After this, the kingdom broke into small states.

Bahmani Kingdom

· The Muslim kingdom of Bahmani was established by some nobles of the Deccan who revolted against the repressive policies of Sultan Muhammed Tughlaq. In 1347, Hasan became the king under the title Abdul Muzaffar Ala-Ud-Din Bahman Shah and founded the Bahmani dynasty.

· This dynasty lasted for about 175 years and had 18 rulers.

· At the height of its glory, the Bahmani kingdom extended from north of Krishna river up to Narmada, and stretched east-west from the coasts of the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea.

· The rulers of Bahmani were often at war with the neighbouring Hindu kingdom Vijayanagar.

· The most distinguished figure of the Bahmani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan, who was the principal minister of the state - Amir-ul-ulmra for over two decades.

· He fought many wars, subdued many kings and annexed many territories to the Bahmani kingdom.

· Within the kingdom, he improved the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education, reformed revenue system, disciplined army and removed corruption.

· A man of character and integrity, he was held in high esteem by the Deccani group of nobles, especially Nizam-ul-Mulk, and their machinations led to his execution.

· With this, started the decline of the Bahmani empire, which came to an end with the death of its last king Kalimullah in 1527.

· Thereafter, Bahmani Empire was disintegrated into five regional independent principalities - Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and Golkonda.

Bhakti Movement

· An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution in society brought about by a galaxy of socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement.

· This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of Indian subcontinent.

· For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700).

· The leader of this Hindu revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great thinker and a distinguished philosopher.

· And this movement was propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram, Jayadeva. The movement's major achievement was its abolition of idol worship.

· The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda.

· Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15^th century.

· He taught that Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his sacred name.

· Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in 16^th century Bengal.

· A great proponent of loving devotion for God, bhakti yoga, Chaitanya worshiped the Lord in the form of Krishna.

· Sri Ramanuja Acharya was an Indian philosopher and is recognized as the most important saint of Sri Vaishnavism.

· Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India.

· He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and devotion.

· His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste among his followers.

· Followers of Bhakti movement in 12^th and 13^th Century included saints such as Bhagat Namdev, and Saint Kabir Das, who insisted on the devotional singing of praises of lord through their own compositions.

· Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, too was a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social reformer.

· He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals.

· He preached the unity of God and condemned formalism and ritualism of both Islam and Hinduism.

· Guru Nanak's gospel was for all men. He proclaimed their equality in all respects.

· The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued to witness the rise of many religious reformers.

· The exponent of the Rama cult and the Krishna cult among the Vaishnavas branched off into a number of sects and creeds.

· The leading light of the Rama cult was saint-poet Tulsidas.

· He was a very great scholar and had made a profound study of Indian philosophy and literature.

· His great poem, 'Ramacharitamanasa', popularly called Tulsi-krita Ramayana is very popular among the Hindu devotees.

· He set before the people the image of Sri Rama as all virtuous, all powerful, the Lord of the World, and the very embodiment of the Supreme Reality (Parabrahma).

· The followers of the Krishna cult founded the Radha Ballabhi sect under Hari Vamsa in 1585 A.D. Sur Das wrote 'Sursagar' in Brajbhasha, which is full of verses of the charm of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha.

Sufism

· The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Faqir are used for Muslim saints who attempted to achieve development of their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial.

· By the 12^th century A.D., Sufism had become a universal aspect of Islamic social life as its influence extended over almost the entire Muslim community.

· Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side of Islam or the mystical dimension of Muslim religion.

· However, the Sufi saints transcending all religious and communal distinctions, worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large.

· The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity.

· Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only.

· They believed that God is 'Mashuq' and Sufis are the 'Ashiqs'.

· Sufism crystallized itself into various 'Silsilahs' or orders.

· The 4 most popular among these were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.

· Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses.

· It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy and endeavoured to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the only and the ultimate goal.

· At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men of their moral obligations.

· To a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.

· The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

The Mughal Empire

· In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever.

· The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of millions of people.

· India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years during the Mughal rule.

· There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came.

· There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

Babar (1526-1530):

· the great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India.

· He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India.

· Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556):

· the eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal Empire.

· He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler.

· Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat.

· Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan.

· However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545):

· was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540.

· Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent.

· As a king, he has several achievements in his credit.

· He established an efficient public administration.

· He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land.

· Justice was provided to the common man.

· Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done.

· Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built.

· The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam.

· However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.

Akbar (1556-1605):

· Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died.

· Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire.

· After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India.

· Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries.

· He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.

· Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well.

· He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India.

· Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system.

· Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.

· Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.

Jehangir:

· Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World".

· He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world).

· He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration to her.

· He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal.

· Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar.

· But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler.

· He strived to reform society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort to Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son.

· Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste.

· He died in 1627.

Shah Jahan:

· Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628.

· Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World.

· He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of Southern India.

· The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan's rule.

· This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace.

· As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire.

· Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king".

· The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering and art.

· Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.

Aurangzeb:

· Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707.

· Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity.

· But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government.

· This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on.

· During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule.

· It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area.

· He worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end.

· He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years.

· With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.

Rise of the Sikh Power

· Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century.

· Guru Nanak was born on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi.

· Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking with no interest in worldly life.

· At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment.

· Thereafter, he travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message.

· On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.

· Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552).

· He created a new script gurmukhi and gave the Sikhs a written language.

· After his death Guru Amar Das Ji (1479-1574) followed in succession.

· He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism.

· Guru Ram Das Ji took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later incorporated in the sacred writings.

· Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of Sikhism.

· He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar.

· He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of the Sikhs.

· Guru Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru Hargobind, who maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power.

· Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in 1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching the teachings of Guru Nanak.

· He passed away in 1661 and ordained his second son, Harkishan as the Guru.

· Guru Siri Har Krishan Ji got enlightenment in 1661.

· He gave his life while serving and healing the epidemic-stricken people in Delhi.

· The place where he breath his last is the one where, the renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi.

· Siri Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664.

· When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out.

· Gurdwara Sisganj in Delhi stands at the place of Guru Sahib's martyrdom and Gurdwara Rakabganj at the site of his cremation.

· The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in 1666 and became guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur.

· Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of his death invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to a grinding halt.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

· Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630-1680), the great Maratha hero established the Maratha Empire in the Deccan fighting the powerful Mughals who were ruling India then.

· He motivated and combined the common man to fight against the domination of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by inculcating wisdom of pride and nationality in them.

· Shivaji showed his spirit at the young age of 18, when he overran a number of hill forts near Pune.

· He raised a strong army and navy, built and renovated forts.

· A regular element of his campaigns was his use of guerilla warfare.

· He joined together the Maratha chiefs from Maval, Konkan and Desh regions for the promotion of Maharashtra Dharma and carved out a small kingdom.

· Shivaji became an inspirational leader to his people and took the responsibility of leadership of the Marathas.

· The audacious Shivaji provided a thrust to the Marathas and other Hindus with martial tactics, which the Marathas effectively used against the sultans of the peninsula as well as the Mughals.

· The small kingdom established by Chhatrapati Shivaji known as "Hindavi Swaraja" (Sovereign Hindu state) grew and stretched from Attock in Northwest India (now in Pakistan) beyond Cuttack in East India, in course of time, to become the strongest power in India.

· Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, at the age of fifty from an attack of dysentery.

· His premature death at the age of 50 (April, 1680) created a blankness, though his place in Indian history has been documented, recognised and remembered.

The Decline of Mughal Empire

· The Mughal Empire started disintegrating with the death of Aurangazeb in 1707.

· His son and successor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was already old when he took the throne and was confronted with one rebellion after another.

· At that time, the Empire was facing challenges from the Marathas and the British.

· The inflated taxes and religious intolerance weakened the grip of Mughal Empire.

· The Mughal Empire was split into numerous independent or semi-independent states.

· Nadirshah of Iran sacked Delhi in 1739 and exposed the fragility of the power of Mughals.

· The empire rapidly shrank to the extent of being reduced to only a small district around Delhi.

· Yet they managed to rule at least some parts of India until 1850s, although they never regained the dignity and authority of their early days.

· The imperial dynasty became extinct with Bahadur Shah II who was deported to Rangoon by the British on suspicion of assisting the sepoy mutineers. He died there in 1862.

· This marked the end of the medieval era of Indian history, and gradually, the British paramountcy over the nation increased and gave birth to the Indian struggle for freedom.

Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)

· In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen to come to India.

· The Aryans came from Central Europe and settled down in India.

· The Persians followed by the Iranians and Parsis immigrated to India.

· Then came the Moghuls and they too settled down permanently in India.

· Chengis Khan, the Mongolian, invaded and looted India many times.

· Alexander the Great too, came to conquer India but went back after a battle with Porus.

· He-en Tsang from China came in pursuit of knowledge and to visit the ancient Indian universities of Nalanda and Takshila.

· Columbus wanted to come to India, but instead landed on the shores of America.

· Vasco da Gama from Portugal came to trade his country's goods in return for Indian species.

· The French came and established their colonies in India.

· Lastly, the Britishers came and ruled over India for nearly 200 years.

· After the battle of Plassey in 1757, the British achieved political power in India.

· And their paramountcy was established during the tenure of Lord Dalhousie, who became the Governor- General in 1848.

· He annexed Punjab, Peshawar and the Pathan tribes in the north-west of India.

· And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.

· And while the British power gained its heights during the middle of the 19^th century, the discontent of the local rulers, the peasantry, the intellectuals, common masses as also of the soldiers who became unemployed due to the disbanding of the armies of various states that were annexed by the British, became widespread.

· This soon broke out into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the 1857 Mutiny.

The Indian Mutiny of 1857

· The conquest of India, which could be said to have begun with the Battle of Plassey (1757), was practically completed by the end of Dalhousie's tenure in 1856.

· It had been by no means a smooth affair as the simmering discontent of the people manifested itself in many localized revolt during this period.

· However, the Mutiny of 1857, which began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut, soon became widespread and posed a grave challenge to the British rule.

· Even though the British succeeded in crushing it within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers, the masses and the militia participated so enthusiastically that it came to be regarded as the First War of Indian Independence.

· Introduction of zamindari system by the British, where the peasants were ruined through exorbitant charges made from them by the new class of landlords.

· The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of the British manufactured goods.

· The religion and the caste system which formed the firm foundation of the traditional Indian society was endangered by the British administration.

· The Indian soldiers as well as people in administration could not rise in hierarchy as the senior jobs were reserved for the Europeans.

· Thus, there was all-round discontent and disgust against the British rule, which burst out in a revolt by the 'sepoys' at Meerut whose religious sentiments were offended when they were given new cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, whose covering had to be stripped out by biting with the mouth before using them in rifles.

· The Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers, who refused to use such cartridges, were arrested which resulted in a revolt by their fellow soldiers on May 9, 1857.

· The rebel forces soon captured Delhi and the revolt spread to a wider area and there was uprising in almost all parts of the country.

· The most ferocious battles were fought in Delhi, Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, Allahabad, Agra, Meerut and western Bihar.

· The rebellious forces under the commands of Kanwar Singh in Bihar and Bakht Khan in Delhi gave a stunning blow to the British.

· In Kanpur, Nana Sahib was proclaimed as the Peshwa and the brave leader Tantya Tope led his troops.

· Rani Lakshmibai was proclaimed the ruler of Jhansi who led her troops in the heroic battles with the British.

· The Hindus, the Muslims, the Sikhs and all the other brave sons of India fought shoulder to shoulder to throw out the British.

· The revolt was controlled by the British within one year, it began from Meerut on 10 May 1857 and ended in Gwalior on 20 June 1858.

End of the East India Company

· Consequent to the failure of the Revolt of 1857 rebellion, one also saw the end of the East India Company's rule in India and many important changes took place in the British Government's policy towards India which sought to strengthen the British rule through winning over the Indian princes, the chiefs and the landlords.

· Queen Victoria's Proclamation of November 1, 1858 declared that thereafter India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State.

· The Governor General was given title of Viceroy, which meant the representative of the Monarch.

· Queen Victoria assumed the title of the Empress of India and thus gave the British Government unlimited powers to intervene in the internal affair of the Indian states.

· In brief, the British paramountcy over India, including the Indian States, was firmly established.

· The British gave their support to the loyal princes, zamindar and local chiefs but neglected the educated people and the common masses.

· They also promoted the other interests like those of the British merchants, industrialists, planters and civil servants.

· The people of India, as such, did not have any say in running the government or formulation of its policies.

· Consequently, people's disgust with the British rule kept mounting, which gave rise to the birth of Indian National Movement.

· The leadership of the freedom movement passed into the hands of reformists like Raja Rammohan Roy, Bankim Chandra and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

· During this time, the binding psychological concept of National Unity was also forged in the fire of the struggle against a common foreign oppressor.

· Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 which aimed at purging the society of all its evil practices.

· He worked for eradicating evils like sati, child marriage and purdah system, championed widow marriage and women's education and favoured English system of education in India.

· It was through his effort that sati was declared a legal offence by the British.

· Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, established the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in 1897.

· He championed the supremacy of Vedantic philosophy.

· His talk at the Chicago (USA) Conference of World Religions in 1893 made the westerners realize the greatness of Hinduism for the first time.

Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

· The foundations of the Indian National Movement were laid by Suredranath Banerjee with the formation of Indian Association at Calcutta in 1876.

· The aim of the Association was to represent the views of the educated middle class, inspire the Indian community to take the value of united action.

· The Indian Association was, in a way, the forerunner of the Indian National Congress, which was founded, with the help of A.O. Hume, a retired British official.

· The birth of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked the entry of new educated middle-class into politics and transformed the Indian political horizon.

· The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay in December 1885 under the president ship of Womesh Chandra Banerjee and was attended among others by and Badr-uddin-Tyabji.

· At the turn of the century, the freedom movement reached out to the common unlettered man through the launching of the "Swadeshi Movement" by leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose.

· The Congress session at Calcutta in 1906, presided by Dadabhai Naoroji, gave a call for attainment of 'Swaraj' a type of self-government elected by the people within the British Dominion, as it prevailed in Canada and Australia, which were also the parts of the British Empire.

· Meanwhile, in 1909, the British Government announced certain reforms in the structure of Government in India which are known as Morley-Minto Reforms.

· But these reforms came as a disappointment as they did not mark any advance towards the establishment of a representative Government.

· The provision of special representation of the Muslim was seen as a threat to the Hindu-Muslim unity on which the strength of the National Movement rested.

· So, these reforms were vehemently opposed by all the leaders, including the Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

· Subsequently, King George V made two announcements in Delhi: firstly, the partition of Bengal, which had been effected in 1905, was annulled and, secondly, it was announced that the capital of India was to be shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

· The disgust with the reforms announced in 1909 led to the intensification of the struggle for Swaraj. While, on one side, the activists led by the great leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal waged a virtual war against the British, on the other side, the revolutionaries stepped up their violent activities There was a widespread unrest in the country.

· To add to the already growing discontent among the people, Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919, which empowered the Government to put people in jail without trial.

· This caused widespread indignation, led to massive demonstration and hartals, which the Government repressed with brutal measures like the Jaliawalla Bagh massacre, where thousand of unarmed peaceful people were gunned down on the order of General Dyer.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

· Jalianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919 was one of the most inhuman acts of the British rulers in India.

· The people of Punjab gathered on the auspicious day of Baisakhi at Jalianwala Bagh, adjacent to Golden Temple (Amritsar), to lodge their protest peacefully against persecution by the British Indian Government.

· General Dyer appeared suddenly with his armed police force and fired indiscriminately at innocent empty handed people leaving hundreds of people dead, including women and children.

· After the First World War (1914-1918), Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the Congress.

· During this struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had developed the novel technique of non-violent agitation, which he called 'Satyagraha', loosely translated as 'moral domination'.

· Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu, also espoused a total moral philosophy of tolerance, brotherhood of all religions, non-violence (ahimsa) and of simple living.

· With this, new leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose also emerged on the scene and advocated the adoption of complete independence as the goal of the National Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

· The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress from September 1920 to February 1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian Independence Movement.

· After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realised that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and thereby marring the administrative set up of the country.

· This movement was a great success as it got massive encouragement to millions of Indians.

· This movement almost shook the British authorities.

Simon Commission

· The Non-cooperation movement failed.

· Therefore there was a lull in political activities.

· The Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 by the British Government to suggest further reforms in the structure of Indian Government.

· The Commission did not include any Indian member and the Government showed no intention of accepting the demand for Swaraj.

· Therefore, it sparked a wave of protests all over the country and the Congress as well as the Muslim League gave a call to boycott it under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai.

· The crowds were lathi charged and Lala Lajpat Rai, also called Sher-e-Punjab (Lion of Punjab) died of the blows received in an agitation.

Civil Disobedience Movement

· Mahatma Gandhi led the Civil Disobedience Movement that was launched in the Congress Session of December 1929.

· The aim of this movement was a complete disobedience of the orders of the British Government.

· During this movement it was decided that India would celebrate 26^th January as Independence Day all over the country.

· On 26^th January 1930, meetings were held all over the country and the Congress tricolour was hoisted.

· The British Government tried to repress the movement and resorted to brutal firing, killing hundreds of people.

· Thousands were arrested along with Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru.

· But the movement spread to all the four corners of the country Following this, Round Table Conferences were arranged by the British and Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference at London.

· But nothing came out of the conference and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived.

· During this time, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were arrested on the charges of throwing a bomb in the Central Assembly Hall (which is now Lok Sabha) in Delhi, to demonstrate against the autocratic alien rule.

· They were hanged to death on March 23, 1931.

Quit India Movement

· In August 1942, Gandhiji started the 'Quit India Movement' and decided to launch a mass civil disobedience movement 'Do or Die' call to force the British to leave India.

· The movement was followed, nonetheless, by large-scale violence directed at railway stations, telegraph offices, government buildings, and other emblems and institutions of colonial rule.

· There were widespread acts of sabotage, and the government held Gandhi responsible for these acts of violence, suggesting that they were a deliberate act of Congress policy.

· However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the Congress was banned and the police and army were brought out to suppress the movement.

· Meanwhile, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who stealthily ran away from the British detention in Calcutta, reached foreign lands and organized the Indian National Army (INA) to overthrow the British from India.

· The Second World War broke out in September of 1939 and without consulting the Indian leaders, India was declared a warring state (on behalf of the British) by the Governor General.

· Subhash Chandra Bose, with the help of Japan, preceded fighting the British forces and not only freed Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the Britishers but also entered the north-eastern border of India.

· But in 1945 Japan was defeated and Netaji proceeded from Japan through an aeroplane to a place of safety but met with an accident and it was given out that he died in that air-crash itself.

· "Give me blood and I shall give you freedom" - was one of the most popular statements made by him, where he urges the people of India to join him in his freedom movement.

Partition of India and Pakistan

· At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee, came to power in Britain.

· The Labour Party was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for freedom.

· A Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March 1946, which after a careful study of the Indian political scenario, proposed the formation of an interim Government and convening of a Constituent Assembly comprising members elected by the provincial legislatures and nominees of the Indian states.

· An interim Government was formed headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.

· However, the Muslim League refused to participate in the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly and pressed for the separate state for Pakistan.

· Lord Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, presented a plan for the division of India into India and Pakistan, and the Indian leaders had no choice but to accept the division, as the Muslim League was adamant.

· Thus, India became free at the stroke of midnight, on August 14, 1947.

· (Since then, every year India celebrates its Independence Day on 15^th August).

· Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minster of free India and continued his term till 1964.

· Giving voice to the sentiments of the nation, Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said,

· Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we will redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially.

· At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.

· A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance....

· We end today a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.

· Earlier, a Constituent Assembly was formed in July 1946, to frame the Constitution of India and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President.

· The Constitution of India which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26^th November 1949.

On January 26, 1950, the Constitution was came into force and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of India.

Charts for Quick Revision

Chart -I

Stone tool
Paleolithic (Primary Stone Age)

Lower Paleolithic (earliest period)

Homo

Control of fire by early humans

Middle Paleolithic

Homo neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens

Recent African origin of modern humans

Upper Paleolithic, Late Stone Age

Behavioral modernity, Atlatl,
Origin of the domestic dog

Mesolithic

Microliths, Bow, Canoe

Neolithic

Pre-Pottery Neolithic

Neolithic Revolution,
Domestication

Pottery Neolithic

Pottery

Chalcolithic

· Metallurgy, Wheel,
Domestication of the horse,

Chart-III

Events

100,000-50,000 BC

§ Largest time period genetic and rock dating traces.

50,000—40,000 BC

§ c. 50,000 BC: start of the Mousterian Pluvial in North Africa

§ 43,000—41,000 At Ksar Akil in Lebanon, ornaments and skeletal remains of modern humans are dated to this period.

40,000—30,000 BC

§ 40,000—35,000 BC: Cro Magnon appear in Europe, early cultural center in the Swabian Alb, earliest figurative art (Venus of Schelklingen), beginningAurignacian

§ 35,000 BC: Zar, Yataghyeri, Damjili and Taghlar caves in Azerbaijan.

§ c. 32,000 BC: Europeans understand how to harden clay figures by firing them in an oven at high temperatures.

§ 30,000 BC: Reinvention of the bow and arrow.

§ c. 30,000 BC: end of the Mousterian Pluvial in North Africa

§ c. 30,000 BC—26,000 BC: Lion-Human, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, Germany created. It is now in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany.

30,000—20,000 BC

§ 29,000—25,000 BC: Venus of Dolní Věstonice. It is the oldest known ceramic in the world. The Red Lady of Paviland lived around 29-26,000 years ago. Recent evidence has come to light that he was a tribal chief.

§ c. 28,000 BC: People start to live in Japan.

§ 25,000 BC—17,000 BC: Wall painting with horses, rhinoceroses and aurochs, Chauvet Cave, Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, Ardéche gorge, France, is made. Discovered in December 1994.

§ c. 24,000 BC: start of the second Mousterian Pluvial in North Africa.

§ c. 23,000 BC: Venus of Petřkovice (Petřkovická venuše in Czech) from Petřkovice in Ostrava, Czech Republic, was made. It is now in Archeological Institute, Brno.

§ c. 22,000 BC: Neanderthals believed to have become extinct in Europe.

§ c. 22,000 BC: Last Glacial Maximum: Venus of Brassempouy, Grotte du Pape, Brassempouy, Landes, France, was made. It is now at Musee des Antiquites Nationales, St.-Germain-en-Laye.

§ c. 22,000 BC—21,000 BC: Venus of Willendorf, Austria, was made. It is now at Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.

§ c. 20,000 BC: end of the second Mousterian Pluvial in North Africa.

20,000—15,000 BC

§ c. 18,000 BC—15,000 BC: Last Glacial Maximum. Mean Sea Levels are believed to be 110 to 120 meters (361 to 394 ft) lower than present,^[9] with the direct implication that many coastal and lower riverine valley archaeological sites of interest are today under water.

§ c. 18,000 BC: Spotted Horses, Pech Merle cave, Dordogne, France are painted. Discovered in December 1994.

§ c. 18,000 BC—11,000 BC: Ibex-headed spear thrower, from Le Mas d'Azil, Ariege, France, is made. It is now at Musee de la Prehistoire, Le Mas d'Azil.

§ c. 18,000 BC—12,000 BC: Mammoth-bone village in Mezhirich, Ukraine is inhabited.

§ c. 17,000 BC: Spotted human hands, Pech Merle cave, Dordogne, France are painted. Discovered in December 1994.

§ c. 17,000 BC—15,000 BC: Hall of Bulls, Lascaux caves, is painted. Discovered in 1940. Closed to the public in 1963.

§ c. 17,000 BC—15,000 BC: Bird-Headed man with bison and Rhinoceros, Lascaux caves, is painted.

§ c. 17,000 BC—15,000 BC: Lamp with ibex design, from La Mouthe cave, Dordogne, France, is made. It is now at Musee des Antiquites Nationales, St.-Germain-en-Laye.

§ c. 16,500 BC: Paintings in Cosquer cave, where the cave mouth is now under water at Cap Margiou, France were made.

§ c. 15,000 BC: Bison, Le Tuc d'Audoubert, Ariege, France.

16,000—12,000 BC

§ c. 15,000 BC-13,000 BC: Paleo-Indians move across North America, then southward through Central America.

§ c. 15,000 BC-12,000 BC: Pregnant woman and deer (?), from Laugerie-Basse, France was made. It is now at Musee des Antiquites Nationales, St.-Germain-en-Laye.

§ c. 14,000 BC: Paleo-Indians searched for big game near what is now the Hovenweep National Monument.

§ c. 14,000 BC: Bison, on the ceiling of a cave at Altamira, Spain, is painted. Discovered in 1879. Accepted as authentic in 1902.

§ c. 14,000 BC: Domestication of Reindeer.

§ 13,000 BC: Beginning of the Holocene extinction.

§ 13,000 BC: earliest evidence of warfare

12,000—11,000 BC

§ 11,500 BC—10,000 BC: Wooden buildings in South America (Chile), first pottery vessels (Japan).

§ 11,000 BC: First evidence of human settlement in Argentina.

§ 11,000 BC: The Arlington Springs Man dies on the island of Santa Rosa, off the coast of California.

§ 11,000 BC: Human remains deposited in caves which are now located off the coast of Yucatán.

Chart-IV

Cultures

The Upper Paleolithic in the Franco-Cantabrian region:

§ The Châtelperronian culture was located around central and south western France, and northern Spain. It appears to be derived from the earlier Mousterianculture, and represents the period of overlap between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. This culture lasted from approximately 33,000 BC to 27,000 BC.

§ The Aurignacian culture was located in Europe and south west Asia, and flourished between 32000 BC and 21,000 BC. It may have been contemporary with the Périgordian (a contested grouping of the earlier Châtelperronian and later Gravettian cultures).

§ The Gravettian culture was located around France, though evidence of Gravettian products have been found across central Europe and Russia. Gravettian sites date between 26,000 BC to 20,000 BC.

§ The Solutrean culture was located in eastern France, Spain, and England. Solutrean artifacts have been dated to around 19000 BC before mysteriously disappearing around 15,000 BC.

§ The Magdalenian culture left evidence from Portugal to Poland during the period from 16,000 BC to 8000 BC.

From the Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures:

§ central and east Europe:

§ 30,000 BC, Szeletian culture

§ 20,000 BC, Pavlovian, Aurignacian cultures

§ 11,000 BC, Ahrensburg culture

§ 10,000 BC, Epigravettian culture

§ 9000 BC, Gravettian culture

§ north and west Africa, and Sahara:

§ 30,000 BC, Aterian culture

§ 10,000 BC, Ibero-Maurusian (a.k.a. Oranian, Ouchtatian), and Sebilian cultures

§ 8000 BC, Capsian culture

§ central, south, and east Africa:

§ 50,000 BC, Fauresmithian culture

§ 30,000 BC, Stillbayan culture

§ 10,000 BC, Lupembian culture

§ 9000 BC, Magosian culture

§ 7000 BC, Wiltonian culture

§ 3000 BC, beginning of hunter-gatherer art in southern Africa

§ West Asia (including Middle East):

§ 50,000 BC, Jabroudian culture

§ 40,000 BC, Amoudian culture

§ 30,000 BC, Emirian culture

§ 20,000 BC, Aurignacian culture

§ 10,000 BC, Kebarian, Athlitian cultures

§ south, central and northern Asia:

§ 30,000 BC, Angara culture

§ 9000 BC, Khandivili culture

§ east and southeast Asia:

§ 80,000 BC, Ordos culture

§ 50,000 BC, Ngandong culture

§ 30,000 BC, Sen-Doki culture

§ c. 14,000 BC — Jōmon period starts in Ancient Japan.

§ 10,000 BC, pre-Jōmon ceramic culture

§ 8000 BC, Hoabinhian culture

§ 7000 BC, Jōmon culture

Chart-V Periodization for the Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East is as follows:

Bronze Age (3300–1200 BCE)	Early Bronze Age (3300–2200 BCE)	Early Bronze Age I	3300–3000 BCE
		Early Bronze Age II	3000–2700 BCE
		Early Bronze Age III	2700–2200 BCE
	Middle Bronze Age (2200–1550 BCE)	Middle Bronze Age I	2200–2000 BCE
		Middle Bronze Age II A	2000–1750 BCE
		Middle Bronze Age II B	1750–1650 BCE
		Middle Bronze Age II C	1650–1550 BCE
	Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BCE)	Late Bronze Age I	1550–1400 BCE
		Late Bronze Age II A	1400–1300 BCE
		Late Bronze Age II B	1300–1200 BCE

Chart- VII

Timeline of ancient history

Middle to Late Bronze Age

· The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system.

· In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world. In the 24th century BC, theAkkadian Empire was founded.

· The First Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 22nd century BC) was followed by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt between the 21st to 17th centuries BC.

· The Sumerian Renaissance also developed c. 21st century BC. Around the 18th century BC, the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt began.

· By 1600 BC, Mycenaean Greece developed,

· the beginning of Shang Dynasty in China emerged and there was evidence of a fully developed Chinese writing system.

· Also around 1600 BC, the beginning of Hittite dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean region is seen.

· The time between the 16th to 11th centuries around the Nile is called the New Kingdom of Egypt. Between 1550 BC and 1292 BC, the Amarna Period developed.

Early Iron Age

· The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region.

· During the 13th to 12th centuries, the Ramesside Period occurred. Around c. 1200 BC, the Trojan War was thought to have taken place. By c. 1180 BC, the disintegration of Hittite Empire was underway.

· In 1046 BC, the Zhou force, led by King Wu of Zhou, overthrows the last king of Shang Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty is established in China shortly thereafter.

· In 1000 BC, the Mannaeans Kingdom begins.

· Around the 10th to 7th centuries, the Neo-Assyrian Empire forms. In 800 BC, the rise of Greekcity-states begins.

· In 776 BC, the first recorded Olympic Games are held. The Ancient Olympic Games origins are unknown, but several legends and myths have survived.

§ 753 BC: Founding of Rome (traditional date)

§ 745 BC: Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria. With time he conquers neighboring countries and turns Assyria into an empire

§ 722 BC: Spring and Autumn Period begins in China; Zhou Dynasty's power is diminishing; the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought

§ c.750 BC: Breach of the Marib Dam in Arabia Felix. Three new dams were built by the Sabaeans.

§ c 728 BC: Rise of the Median Empire

§ 612 BC: Attributed date of the destruction of Nineveh and subsequent fall of Assyria. 600 BC: Sixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") emerge. A number of these Maha Janapadas are semi-democraticrepublics^.[53]

§ c. 600 BC: Pandyan kingdom in South India ^.

§ 599 BC: Mahavira, founder of Jainism is born as a prince at Kundalavana, who ruled Magadha Empire.

§ 563 BC: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe, which ruled parts of Magadha, one of the Maha Janapadas

§ 551 BC: Confucius, founder of Confucianism, is born

§ 550 BC: Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great

§ 546 BC: Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia

§ 544 BC: Rise of Magadha as the dominant power under Bimbisara.

§ 539 BC: The Fall of the Babylonian Empire and liberation of the Jews by Cyrus the Great

§ 529 BC: Death of Cyrus

§ 525 BC: Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt

§ c. 512 BC: Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia, subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes Libya, Persian Empire at largest extent

§ 509 BC: Expulsion of the last King of Rome, founding of Roman Republic (traditional date)

§ 508 BC: Democracy instituted by Cleisthenes at Athens

§ c. 500 BC: Panini standardizes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the text Ashtadhyayi. Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit.

§ 500 BC: Pingala develops system ranks of binary patterns.

§ 490 BC: Greek city-states defeat Persian invasion at Battle of Marathon

§ 480 BC: Invasion of Greece by Xerxes; Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis

§ 475 BC: Warring States Period begins in China as the Zhou king became a mere figurehead; China is annexed by regional warlords.

§ c. 469 BC: Birth of Socrates

§ 465 BC: Murder of Xerxes

§ 460 BC: First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta

§ 447 BC: Building of the Parthenon at Athens started

§ 424 BC: Nanda dynasty comes to power.

§ 404 BC: End of Peloponnesian War between the Greek city-states

§ 399 BC: February 15—The Greek philosopher Socrates is sentenced to death by Athenian authorities in Athens, condemned for impiety and the corruption of youth. He refuses to flee into exile and is sentenced to death by drinking hemlock.

§ c. 385 BC: The Greek philosopher Plato, a former disciple of Socrates, founds a philosophical school at the Akademia, from land purchased from Akademus, in Athens — later famously known as the Academy. There, Plato, and the later heads of the school, called scholarchs, taught many of the brilliant minds of the day, including the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle

Late ancient history

§ 335 BC: The Greek philosopher Aristotle founds his philosophical school — known then as the Lyceum (named because it was located near the site of the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens) — and begins teaching there.

§ 331 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela

§ 326 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River. .

§ 323 BC: Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon

§ 321 BC: Chandragupta Maurya overthrows the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha.

§ 307 BC: The Greek philosopher Epicurus founds his philosophical school, the Garden of Epicurus, outside the walls of Athens.

§ 305 BC: Chandragupta Maurya seizes the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan) fromSeleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of Babylonia, in return for 500 elephants.

§ c. 302 BC: Pandiya dynasty, Chola dynasty, and Chera dynasty rule separate areas in South India

§ 294 BC: Zeno of Citium founds the philosophy of Stoicism in Athens (the philosophy derives its namesake from the fact that Zeno and his followers would regularly meet near the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch") of the Athenian agora.)

§ c. 252 BC: Ashoka the Great becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire

§ c. 252 BC: Thục Dynasty takes over Việt Nam (then Kingdom of Âu Lạc)

§ c. 249 BC: Rise of Parthia (Ashkâniân), the third native dynasty of ancient Persia

§ c. 233 BC: Death of Emperor Ashoka the Great; Decline of the Mauryan Empire

§ 221 BC: Construction of the Great Wall begins.

§ c. 220 BC: Qin Shi Huang, ruler of the Qin Dynasty, unifies China (end of Warring States Period)

§ c. 220 BC: Simuka, founder of the Satavahanas dynasty, rules area in South India

§ 209 BC: Kingdom of Nan Yueh is established by Tch'ao T'o (Trieu Dynasty)

§ c. 206 BC: Lew Pang is proclaimed emperor (Kaou-te) and the Han Dynasty is established.

§ 202 BC: Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama

§ 189 BC: Artaxiad Dynasty in Armenia is founded

§ c. 184 BC: Sunga Empire founded.

§ 149 BC–146: Third and final Punic War; destruction of Carthage by Rome

§ 146 BC: Corinth in Greece was destroyed by Rome and Roman authority became supreme throughout Greece.

§ 140 BC: The first system of imperial examinations was officially instituted in China by the Han Dynasty emperor Han Wu Di.

§ c. 127 BC: Chang-Kien finds the western lands of civilisation and trading opens on routes of the Silk Road.

§ 111 BC: The Nam Viet Kingdom (Triệu Dynasty) is destroyed by the first Chinese domination of Viet Nam.

§ 95-55 BC: Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenian empire.

§ 53 BC: In the Battle of Carrhae, the army of the Roman Republic led by Marcus Licinius Crassus was destroyed by parthian Spahbod Surena.

§ 49 BC: Conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great lead to the Roman Civil War.

§ 44 BC: Julius Caesar murdered by Marcus Brutus and others; End of Roman Republic and beginning of Roman Empire

§ 6 BC: Earliest estimated date for birth of Jesus of Nazareth

§ 5 BC: Birth of Jesus Christ (Ussher chronology)

In the Common era

World in 1.AD [by R.K.Jugnoo]

§ 9: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, the Imperial Roman Army's bloodiest defeat.

§ 14: Death of Emperor Augustus (Octavian), ascension of his adopted son Tiberius to the throne

§ 29: Crucifixion of Jesus Christ.

§ 68: Year of the four emperors in Rome

§ 70: Destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of Titus.

§ 117: Roman Empire at largest extent under Emperor Trajan

§ 192: Kingdom of Champa in Central Việt Nam

§ 3rd century: The Buddhist Srivijaya Empire established in the Malay Archipelago.

§ 220: Three Kingdoms period begins in China after the fall of Han Dynasty.

§ 226: Fall of the Parthian Empire and Rise of the Sassanian Empire

§ 238: Defeat of Gordian III (238–244), Philip the Arab (244–249), and Valerian (253–260), by Shapur I of Persia, (Valerian was captured by the Persians).

§ 280: Emperor Wu established Jin Dynasty providing a temporary unity of China after the devastating Three Kingdoms period.

§ 285: Emperor Diocletian splits the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires

§ 313: Edict of Milan legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, and thus ended the previous state-sanctioned persecution of Christians there

§ 335: Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire

§ 378: Battle of Adrianople, Roman army under Eastern Roman Emperor Valens is defeated by the Germanic tribes

§ 395: Roman Emperor Theodosius I outlaws all pagan religions in favour of Christianity

§ 410: Alaric I sacks Rome for the first time since 390 BC

§ c. 455: Skandagupta repels an Indo-Hephthalite attack on India.

§ 476: Romulus Augustus, last Western Roman Emperor is forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a half Hunnish and half Scirian chieftain of the Germanic Heruli; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno in Constantinople in return for the title of dux of Italy; traditionally, the most frequently cited date for the end of the Roman Empire (although the Eastern Roman Empire, based in Constantinople, would still continue to exist until 1453)

§ 529 The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I ordered the prominent philosophical schools of antiquity throughout the Eastern Roman Empire (including the famous Academy in Athens, among others) to close down—allegedly, because Justinian frowned upon the pagan nature of these schools

§ 293: reforms of Roman Emperor Diocletian

§ 395: the division of Roman Empire into the Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire

§ 476: the fall of Western Roman Empire

§ 529: closure of Platon Academy in Athens by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I

Chart- VIII

Prominent civilizations

Comparison table

Name	Period	Area	Occupations	Writing	Religion
Mesopotamian	3000 – 750 BC	Sumer, Babylonia, Assyric Highlands	Dairy farming, textile, metal working, potter's wheel,sexagesimal system	Cuneiform	Polytheistic
Egyptian	3000 – 800 BC	North Eastern Africa along River Nile	Egyptian Pyramids, Mummification, Decimal system,Solar calendar	Hieroglyphic	Polytheistic
Chinese	1600 BC – 1 AD	China	Silk, Pottery, Chinaware, Metals, Great Wall, Paper,	Chinese	Taoism,Confucianism
Harappa –Sindhu/Saraswathi	3000 – 1500 BC	Northwest India, Pakistan	Potter's wheel, Agriculture, dams, city planning, seals	Pictographic	Shiva andVedic culture
Iranian	300 BC – 500 AD	Iran	Agriculture, weights & measures, silk, roads,	Aramaic	Zoroastrianism
Greek	800 BC	Sparta, Athens	Agriculture, poetry, drama, philosophy, history	Greek	Polytheistic
Roman	600 BC	Italy	Agriculture, Roman calendar, concrete	Latin	Polytheistic
Mayan	1500 BC – 300 AD	Central America	Agriculture, cotton, dyeing, Mesoamerican pyramidss,	Hieroglyphic	Polytheistic
Aztecs	1325 CE – 1519 CE	Mexico	Agriculture, smelting, metal working	Pictographic	Polytheistic
Incas	1300 CE – 1532 CE	Ecuador, Peru, Chile	Textile looms, agriculture, Inca architecture	–	Polytheistic

Chart- IX

Date range	Phase	Era
7000 - 5500 BCE	Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic)	Early Food Producing Era
5500-3300	Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic)	Regionalisation Era 5500-2600
3300-2600	Early Harappan
3300-2800	Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase)
2800-2600	Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII)
2600-1900	Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization)	Integration Era
2600-2450	Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)
2450-2200	Harappan 3B
2200-1900	Harappan 3C
1900-1300	Late Harappan (Cemetery H); Ochre Coloured Pottery	Localisation Era
1900-1700	Harappan 4
1700-1300	Harappan 5
1300-300	Painted Gray Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware (Iron Age)	Indo-Gangetic Tradition

Chart- X History of South Asia
Stone Age	before 3300 BCE
Mature Harappan	2600–1700 BCE
Late Harappan	1700–1300 BCE
Iron Age	1200–300 BCE
Maurya Empire	• 321–184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms	230 BCE–1279 CE
Satavahana	• 230 BCE–220 CE
Gupta Empire	• 280–550 CE
Pala Empire	• 750–1140 CE
Delhi Sultanate	1206–1596
Mughal Empire	1526–1803
Maratha Empire	1674-1818
British India	1858–1947
Modern States	since 1947

Chart-XI

Ancient India Timeline

3000 BC: Beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization
2500 BC: Establishment of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley
2000 BC: Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
1600 BC: India is invaded by the Aryans from the west who drive away the Dravidians
1100 BC: With the discovery of iron, Indo-Aryans start using iron tools
1000 BC: One of the earliest Holy Scripture, Rig-Veda is composed
750 BC: Indo-Aryans rule over 16 Mahajanapadas (16 Great States) in northern India, from the Indus to the Ganges
700 BC: Beginning of the caste system, with the Brahmans taking the highest class
600 BC: The Upanishads are composed in Sanskrit
543 BC: Bimbisara of Bihar conquers the Magadha region in the northeast
527 BC: Prince Siddhartha Gautama attains enlightenment and becomes the Buddha
500 BC: The ascetic prince Mahavira establishes Jainism in northern India
493 BC: Bimbisara dies and is succeeded by Ajatashatru
461 BC: Ajatashatru expands the Magadha territory and dies shortly afterwards
327 BC: Alexander the Great of Macedonia invades the Indus valley, fights the famous battle with Porus
304 BC: Magadha king Chandragupta Maurya buys the Indus valley and establishes the Maurya dynasty with Pataliputra as the capital
300 BC: Ramayana, a famous epic is composed
300 BC: Chola dynasty establishes his kingdom over southern India with capital in Thanjavur
290 BC: Chandragupta's son Bindusara, extends the empire to the Deccan region
259 BC: Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism and sends out Buddhist missionaries to nearby regions
220 BC: Maurya dynasty expands to almost all of India
200 BC: Mahabharata, another famous epic is composed
200 BC: Andhras occupy the east coast of India
184 BC: Maurya dynasty ends and marks the beginning of Sunga dynasty
150 BC: Patanjali writes the "Yoga Sutras"
100 BC: Bhagavata Gita is composed
78 BC: End of Sunga dynasty
50 AD: Thomas, an apostle of Jesus, visits India
50 AD: The first Buddhist stupa is constructed at Sanchi
200 AD: The Manu code puts down the rules of everyday life and divides Hindus into four major castes (Brahmins, warriors, farmers/traders, non-Aryans)
300 AD: The Pallava dynasty is established in Kanchi
350 AD: The Sangam is compiled in the Tamil language in the kingdom of Madurai and the Puranas are composed
380 AD: Two giant Buddha statues are carved Buddhist monks in the rock at Afghanistan
390 AD: Chandra Gupta II extends the Gupta kingdom to Gujarat
450 AD: Kumaragupta builds the monastic university of Nalanda
499 AD: Hindu mathematician Aryabhatta writes the "Aryabhattiyam", the first book on Algebra
500 AD: Beginning of Bhakti cult in Tamil Nadu
528 AD: Gupta Empire sees a downfall due to continuous barbaric invasions
550 AD: Chalukyan kingdom is established in central India with capital in Badami
600 AD: Pallava dynasty governs southern India from Kanchi
606 AD: Harsha Vardhana, a Buddhist king builds the kingdom of Thanesar in north India and Nepal with capital at Kannauj in the Punjab
625 AD: Pulikesin extends the Chalukyan Empire in central India
647 AD: King Harsha Vardhana is defeated by the Chalukyas at Malwa
650 AD: Pallavas of Kanchipuram are defeated by the Chalukyas
670 AD: Pallavas establish themselves at a new city at Mamallapuram
750 AD: Gurjara - Pratiharas rule the north of India and the Palas establish themselves in eastern India
753 AD: Rashtrakutas, a Chalukya dynasty, expands from the Deccan into south and central India
775 AD: Chalukyas defeat the Rashtrakutas and move the capital at Kalyani
800 AD: Many kingdoms are created in central India and in Rajastan by Rajputs
846 AD: Cholas get back their independence from the Pallavas
885 AD: Pratihara Empire reaches its peak and extends its empire from Punjab to Gujarat to Central India
888 AD: End of the Pallava dynasty
985 AD: Rajaraja Chola extends the Chola Empire to all of south India and constructs the temple of Thanjavur
997 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni raids northern India
998 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni conquers the area of Punjab
1000 AD: Chola king Rajaraja builds the Brihadeshvara Temple in Thanjavur
1019 AD: Mahmud Ghazni attacks north India and destroys Kannauj, which is the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
1050 AD: Chola Empire conquers Srivijaya, Malaya and the Maldives
1084 AD: Mahipala raises the Palas to the peak of their power
1190 AD: Chalukya Empire is split among Hoysalas, Yadavas and Kakatiyas

Chart- XII

Medieval India Timeline

1192 AD: Mohammad of Ghori defeats Prithvi Raj, captures Delhi and establishes a Muslim sultanate at Delhi
1206 AD: The Ghurid prince Qutub-ud-din Aibak becomes the first sultan of Delhi
1250 AD: Chola dynasty comes to an end
1290 AD: Jalal ud-Din Firuz establishes the Khilji sultanate at Delhi
1325 AD: The Turks invade and Muhammad bin Tughlaq becomes sultan of Delhi
1343 AD: The southern kingdom builds its capital at Vijayanagar (Hampi)
1345 AD: Muslim nobles revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and declare their independence from the Delhi sultanate. The Bahmani kingdom is established in the Deccan.
1370 AD: Vijayanagar kingdom takes over the Muslim sultanate of Madura in Tamil Nadu
1490 AD: Guru Nanak Dev Ji establishes Sikhism and the city of Amritsar
1497 AD: Babur, a ruler of Afghan, becomes the ruler of Ferghana and establishes the Mughal dynasty in India
1530 AD: Babur dies and his son Humayun succeeds as the next Mughal emperor
1540 AD: Babur's son Humayun loses the empire to Afghan Leader Sher Shah and goes into exile in Persia
1555 AD: Mughal king Humayun comes to fight Sher Shah and regains India
1556 AD: Humayun dies and his son Akbar becomes one of the greatest rulers of India
1605 AD: Akbar dies and is succeeded by his son Jahangir
1611 AD: East India Company is established in India by the British
1617 AD: Jahangir's son, Prince Khurram receives the title of Shah Jahan
1627 AD: Shivaji establishes the Maratha kingdom
1631 AD: Shah Jahan succeeds Jahangir and builds the world famous Taj Mahal
1658 AD: Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb seizes power
1707 AD: Aurangzeb dies, destabilizing the Mughal Empire

Chart-XIII

Modern India Timeline

1751 AD: Britain becomes the leading colonial power in India
1757 AD: British defeat Siraj-ud-daulah at the Battle of Plassey
1761 AD: Marathas rule over most of northern India
1764 AD: Britain expands to Bengal and Bihar
1769 AD: A famine kills ten million people in Bengal and the East India Company does nothing to help them
1773 AD: Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal establishes a monopoly on the sale of opium. Regulating Act passed by the British.
1793 AD: Permanent Settlement of Bengal
1799 AD: British defeat Tipu Sultan
1829 AD: Prohibition of Sati by law
1831 AD: Administration of Mysore is taken over by East India Company
1848 AD: Lord Dalhousie becomes the Governor-General of India
1853 AD: Railway, postal services & telegraph line introduced in India
1857 AD: First War of Indian Independence also known as Revolt of 1857 or Sepoy Mutiny
1858 AD: British Crown officially takes over the Indian Government
1877 AD: Queen of England is proclaimed as the Empress of India
1885 AD: First meeting of the Indian National Congress
1899 AD: Lord Curzon becomes Governor-General and Viceroy of India
1905 AD: The First Partition of Bengal takes place
1906 AD: Muslim League is formed
1912 AD: The Imperial capital shifted to Delhi from Calcutta
1919 AD: The cruel Jallianwalla Bagh massacre takes place due to protests against the Rowlatt Act
1920 AD: Non-cooperation Movement launched
1922 AD: Chauri-Chaura violence takes place due to Civil Disobedience Movement
1928 AD: Simon Commission comes to India and is boycotted by all parties
1930 AD: Salt Satyagraha is launched as an agitation against salt tax. First Round Table Conference takes place
1931 AD: Second Round Table Conference takes place and Irwin-Gandhi Pact is signed
1934 AD: Civil Disobedience Movement is called off
1942 AD: Cripps Mission is formed; Quit India Movement is launched; Indian National Army is formed.
3rd June 1947 AD: Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India comes into light
15th August 1947 AD: Partition of India and Independence from the British rule.